Evaluación de la selección genómica de un solo paso: una aplicación en arroz

class: center

###.fancy[Evaluación de la selección genómica de un solo paso: una aplicación en arroz]

<P align="justify"> **Estudiante:** Jorge Leonardo López Martínez <p>

<br>

<P align="justify">**Director:** Miguel Pérez-Enciso<p>

---
class: center

### Introducción

.panelset.sideways[

.panel[.panel-name[Mejor predictor lineal insesgado]

<P align="justify">El BLUP es un método que se utiliza para predecir el valor genético de un individuo. Para ello, se usa una matriz de parentesco estimada a partir de la información del pedigrí<sup>1</sup>.</p>

]

.panel[.panel-name[Matriz de parentesco- I]

<P align="justify">En la matriz **A**, los elementos fuera de la diagonal indican la relación entre individuos<sup>2</sup>.</p>

]

.panel[.panel-name[Matriz de parentesco- II]

<P align="justify">El parentesco que proviene al usar la matriz **A** es un parentesco esperado, lo cual no refleja el porcentaje real de genes idénticos entre individuos emparentados<sup>1</sup>.</p>

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Blasco (2021)](#bib-cite21).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Clark and van der Werf (2013)](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-447-0_13).</FONT></p>

]

---
class: center

### Introducción

.panelset.sideways[

.panel[.panel-name[Mejor predictor lineal insesgado genómico]

<P align="justify">La matriz **G** del GBLUP define la covarianza entre individuos en función de la similitud observada a nivel genómico, permitiendo con esto predicciones más precisas del valor genético<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>

]

.panel[.panel-name[Selección genómica de múltiples pasos]

<P align="justify">El GBLUP es un método de varios pasos, con una evaluación genética con BLUP, seguidos de la extracción de pseudofenotipos, un análisis genómico y la creación de un índice que combina esta información<sup>3</sup>.</p>

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Clark and van der Werf (2013)](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-447-0_13).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Karimi, Sargolzaei, Plastow et al. (2018)](https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esy051).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[3] [Legarra, Aguilar, and Misztal (2009)](https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2061).</FONT></p>

]

???

### Proceso de selección genómica

La **selección genómica** son una serie de métodos que usan numerosos marcadores de ADN, para predecir los valores genéticos:

### El problema con los pseudofenotipos

<P align="justify">Se considera que este proceso (de múltiples pasos) es poco eficiente, relativamente complicado y con algunos inconvenientes:</p>

.pull-left[

.discusion_2[

<P align="justify">Pueden existir individuos con fenotipos y pseudofenotipos.</p>

]

<br>

.discusion_1[

<P align="justify">Las precisiones de los pseudofenotipos son difíciles de obtener.</p>

]

.pull-right[

.discusion_1[

<P align="justify">La creación de pseudofenotipos puede ser ineficaz si los individuos tienen poca descendencia.</p>

]

---
class: center

### Introducción

.panelset.sideways[

.panel[.panel-name[GBLUP de un solo paso]

<P align="justify">En el ssGBLUP, los fenotipos de los individuos genotipados y no genotipados se analizan conjuntamente para predecir los valores genéticos, a partir de la matriz **H**<sup>1</sup>.</p>

]
<!--
.panel[.panel-name[Matriz H e inversa de H]

<P align="justify">La estructura de la matriz **H** es:</p>

<P align="justify">Y las ecuaciones del modelo mixto para una evaluación genética de un solo paso son:</p>

<P align="justify">La inversa de **H** es más simple que la estructura de **H**:</p>

]
-->
.panel[.panel-name[BLUP vs ssGBLUP]

<P align="justify">El ssGBLUP es un método de uso rutinario para la selección genómica, donde ha demostrado que produce una predicción más precisa en comparación a los métodos BLUP y GBLUP<sup>2</sup>.</p>

.pull-left[

]

.pull-right[

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Misztal, Aggrrey, and Muir (2012)](#bib-cite14).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Misztal, Lourenco, and Legarra (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skaa101).</FONT></p>

]

???

### Derivación del ssGBLUP

Conociendo que la matriz `\(H\)` equivale a:

El desarrollo de las ecuaciones que conducen a la matriz `\(H\)` y su posterior uso dentro de las ecuaciones del modelo mixto se explican a continuación.

Partiendo de un modelo GBLUP en el que no se incluyen efectos fijos, `\(y = Zg + e\)`, un modelo en el cual se incluyen tanto individuos genotipados como no genotipados puede ser de la forma:

`\begin{align*}
y = Z \begin{bmatrix} g_{1} \\ g_{2} \end{bmatrix} + e,
\end{align*}`

donde `\(g_{1}\)` corresponde a los individuos no genotipados, y `\(g_{2}\)` a los individuos genotipados. Esto es, el vector efectos del marcador en el fenotipo o valores de cría ( `\(g\)` ) es dividido en dos partes, una con los valores de cría de los individuos no genotipados ( `\(g_{1}\)` ) y otra con los valores de cría de los individuos genotipados ( `\(g_{2}\)` ).

Para estimar el parentesco genómico de los individuos no genotipados, sus valores de cría ( `\(g_{1}\)` ) se predicen a partir de los valores de cría de los individuos que si lo están ( `\(g_{2}\)` ), con base en la expresión:

`\begin{align*}
g_{1} = cov(g_{1}, g_{2}) \times \left[ var(g_{2} \right]^{-1} \times g_{2} + e
\end{align*}`

<!--
NOTA: para entender la expresión anterior se debe recordar la ecuación de regresión, la cual permite predecir una variable dependiente (y) en función de una variable independiente (x), o bien, predecir el valor aditivo de un toro en función del rendimiento lechero de sus hijas.

Para el caso del ssGBLUP, en el que se pretende predecir el valor aditivo de los individuos no genotipados (g1) en función de los individuos genotipados (g2), la ecuación de regresión, así como su expresión, serían de la siguiente forma:

`\begin{align*}
b_{a_{1}, a_{2}} = \frac{\sigma_{a_{1}, a_{2}}}{\sigma_{a_{2}}^{2}} = \sigma_{a_{1}, a_{2}} \times \left[ \sigma_{a_{2}}^{2}^{-1} \right]
\end{align*}`

Luego:

`\begin{align*}
a_{1} = \sigma_{a_{1}, a_{2}} \times \left[ \sigma_{a_{2}}^{2} \right]^{-1} \times a_{2} + e
\end{align*}`
-->

Sabiendo que la matriz de parentesco en base al pedigrí ( `\(A\)` ) puede descomponerse como `\(\begin{bmatrix} A_{11} & A_{12} \\ A_{21} & A_{22} \end{bmatrix}\)`, donde `\(A_{11}\)` y `\(A_{22}\)` corresponden, respectivamente, a las matrices de parentesco en base al pedigrí de los individuos no genotipados y genotipados (o bien, la varianza de sus respectivos valores  de cría), y `\(A_{12}\)` = `\(A_{21}\)` corresponden a la matriz de parentesco en base al pedigrí entre individuos genotipados y no genotipados (o bien, la covarianza de sus valores de cría), la expresión anterior puede reescribirse de la siguiente forma:

`\begin{align*}
g_{1} = A_{12} A_{22}^{-1} g_{2} + e
\end{align*}`

Luego la expresión anterior en términos de varianza:

`\begin{align*}
var(g_{1}) = var(A_{12} A_{22}^{-1} g_{2}) + var(e)
\end{align*}`

Con un poco de algebra, finalmente la expresión correspondiente a `\(var(g_{1})\)` es:

`\begin{align*}
var(g_{1}) = A_{11} + A_{12} A_{22}^{-1} (G - A_{22}) A_{22}^{-1} A_{21}
\end{align*}`

En relación a la expresión `\(var(g_{2})\)`, ésta sería igual a:

`\begin{align*}
var(g_{2}) = G
\end{align*}`

Por último, la expresión `\(cov(g_{1}, g_{2})\)`, equivaldría a:

`\begin{align*}
cov(g_{1}, g_{2}) = cov(A_{12} A_{22}^{-1} g_{2} + e, g_{2})
\end{align*}`

Qué con un poco de algebra, equilvaldría a:

`\begin{align*}
cov(g_{1}, g_{2}) = A_{12} A_{22}^{-1} G
\end{align*}`

Finalmente, la matriz que contiene las relaciones conjuntas de individuos genotipados y no genotipados sería:

Una vez obtenida la matriz H, se obtiene su inversa ( `\(H^{-1}\)` ), y el modelo de selección genómica se puede resolver mediante un modelo lineal mixto:

---
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### Objetivo

<P align="justify">Evaluar el interés de la selección genómica en un solo paso en plantas. Para ello, se evaluó el efecto de la cantidad de individuos genotipados y del número de marcadores en un diseño que combinó datos reales de arroz y simulaciones de dos tipos, hacia atrás (ancestral) y hacia delante (descendientes).</p>

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Recurso vegetal y datos fenotípicos</b></p>

.pull-left[

<P align="justify">Se usaron los conjuntos de datos del [Rice SNP-Seek Database](http://iric.irri.org/), editados en un estudio previo<sup>1</sup>. Adicionalmente, se consideró un MAF inferior a 0.05.</p>

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</style>
<table class="gt_table">
  
  <thead class="gt_col_headings">
    <tr>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arroz (Oryza sativa L.)</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody class="gt_table_body">
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Ploidía  →  2n = 24</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">No. SNP  →  100.231</td></tr>
  </tbody>
  
  
</table>
</div>

<br>

<P align="justify">Se eligió la variedad Indica y el carácter tiempo de floración.</p>

]

.pull-right[

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Vourlaki, Castanera, Ramos-Onsins et al. ()](#bib-cite26).</FONT></p>

]

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Predicción basada en información de pedigrí e información genómica</b></p>

.pull-left[

<P align="justify">El modelo general fue:</p>

`\begin{equation}
y = \mu + Zg + e
\end{equation}`

<br>

<P align="justify">Los supuestos del modelo son:</p>

+ <P align="justify">BLUP `\(\rightarrow\)` `\(g\)` ~ `\(N(0, A \sigma^{2}_{g})\)`</p>

+ <P align="justify">ssGBLUP `\(\rightarrow\)` `\(g\)` ~ `\(N(0, H \sigma^{2}_{g})\)`</p>

]

.pull-right[

<P align="justify">La matriz **H** fue construida como:</p>

<br>

<P align="justify">La matriz **G** se obtuvo a partir del método de [VanRaden (2007)](#bib-cite39):</p>

`\begin{equation}
G =\frac{XX'}{2 \sum_{j=1}^{nSNP} p_{j} (1 - p_{j})}
\end{equation}`

]

<!--

<br>
<P align="justify">La heredabilidad en sentido estricto se estimó como:</p>

`\begin{equation}
h^{2} = \frac{\sigma^{2}_{g}}{\sigma^{2}_{g} + \sigma^{2}_{e}}
\end{equation}`
-->

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación ancestral</b></p>

.pull-left[

<P align="justify">Se utilizó la metodología del software Molcoanc<sup>1</sup> con el fin de construir tres pedigríes.</p>

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</style>
<table class="gt_table">
  
  <thead class="gt_col_headings">
    <tr>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pedigrí</th>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Núm. de individuos</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody class="gt_table_body">
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Pedigrí 1</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">300 + 451 = 751</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Pedigrí 2</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">1210 + 451 = 1661</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Pedigrí 3</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">2000 + 451 = 2451</td></tr>
  </tbody>
  
  
</table>
</div>

<P align="justify">Este proceso se replicó diez veces para cada pedigrí.</p>

]

.pull-right[

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Fernández and Toro (2006)](#bib-cite24).</FONT></p>

]

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación ancestral</b></p>

.pull-left[

<P align="justify">Se uso la `\(cor(y, \hat{y})\)` como medida de predictibilidad, en 48 individuos.</p>

<br>

<P align="justify">Se usaron diferentes subconjuntos de datos con la siguientes características:</p>

<P align="justify">a) Distinta cantidad de individuos genotipados.</p>

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  <thead class="gt_col_headings">
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      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">451</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody class="gt_table_body"></tbody>
  
  
</table>
</div>

<P align="justify">b) Diferentes densidades de marcadores.</p>

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]

.pull-right[

]

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación ancestral</b></p>

.pull-left[

]

.pull-right[

<P align="justify">Se usaron los paquetes `BGLR`<sup>1</sup> y `lme4GS`<sup>2</sup> del `R` para predecir los valores fenotípicos, permitiendo así la predicción mediante procedimientos Bayesianos y REML.</p>

<br>

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Pérez-Rodríguez and de los Campos (2014)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4196607/).</FONT></p>
<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Caamal-Pat, Pérez-Rodríguez, Crossa et al. (2021)](https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2021.680569).</FONT></p>

]

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación de descendientes</b></p>

<P align="justify">Se generaron cuatro pedigríes, cada uno de ellos con esquemas de cruzamiento diferentes partiendo de la población fundadora con 451 individuos.</p>

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<p style="font-size: 12px;line-height: 24px;font-weight: normal;color: #848484;padding: 0;margin: 0;"><span style="width: 15px; height: 15px; margin:auto; display: inline-block; border: 1px solid yellow; vertical-align: middle; border-radius: 2px; background: yellow "></span><b> 10 es el número de descendientes que tendrían los 451 individuos de la generación F0 mediante cruzamiento.</b></p>

<p style="font-size: 12px;line-height: 24px;font-weight: normal;color: #848484;padding: 0;margin: 0;"><span style="width: 15px; height: 15px; margin:auto; display: inline-block; border: 1px solid cyan; vertical-align: middle; border-radius: 2px; background: cyan "></span><b> 10x80 es el número de descendientes (80) que tendrían cada uno de los 10 individuos de la generación F1 por autofecundación.</b></p>

<p style="font-size: 12px;line-height: 24px;font-weight: normal;color: #848484;padding: 0;margin: 0;"><span style="width: 15px; height: 15px; margin:auto; display: inline-block; border: 1px solid red; vertical-align: middle; border-radius: 2px; background: red "></span><b> 800x1 es el número de descendientes (1) que tendrían cada uno de los 800 individuos de la generación F2 por autofecundación.</b></p>

<P align="justify">Este proceso se replicó diez veces para cada pedigrí.<p>

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación de descendientes</b></p>

.pull-left[

<P align="justify">Se realizó un GWAS usando el software GCTA<sup>1</sup>, con el fin de generar los datos que indicaban el efecto de los QTN y su localización, y se seleccionaron 50 de ellos.</p>

<br>

<P align="justify">Se utilizó el módulo de `Python` `SeqBreed`<sup>2</sup> para simular los fenotipos y genotipos en base a los QTN seleccionados.</p>

]

.pull-right[

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Yang, Lee, Goddard et al. (2011)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.11.011).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Pérez-Enciso, Ramírez-Ayala, and Zingaretti (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12711-020-0530-2).</FONT></p>

]

???

### Respecto a la simulación de fenotipos y genotipos

SeqBreed permite la simulación de cualquier número de rasgos fenotípicos, independientemente de la ploidía. Para cada carácter, se debe especificar la heredabilidad en sentido amplio. Una opción para especificar el número de QTN y sus efectos consiste en especificar esto para cada carácter en un archivo externo. El valor genotípico para el individuo `\(i\)` se define como:

`\begin{equation}
g_{i} = \sum_{j=1}^{nQTN} \gamma_{ij} a_{j} + \sum_{j=1}^{nQTN} \delta_{ij} d_{j} ,
\end{equation}`

donde `\(nQTN\)` es el número de QTN, `\(a_{j}\)` es el efecto aditivo del *j*-ésimo QTN, es decir, la mitad de la diferencia esperada entre genotipos homocigotos, con `\(\gamma_{ij}\)` tomando los valores − 1, 0 y 1 para genotipos homocigotos, heterocigotos y homocigotos alternativos, respectivamente, `\(d_{j}\)` es el efecto de dominancia del *j*-ésimo QTN, con `\(\delta_{ij}\)` tomando el valor 1 si el genotipo es heterocigoto y 0 en caso contrario.

SeqBreed calcula valores genotípicos para cada individuo y simula fenotipos con base en la expresión `\(y_{i} = \mu + g_{i} + e_{i}\)`, donde `\(\mu\)` es es la media (una constante), `\(g_{i}\)` es el genotipo del individuo, y `\(e\)` es el error.

---
class: center

### Materiales y métodos

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación de descendientes</b></p>

<P align="justify">Se utilizó el módulo de `Python` `SeqBreed`<sup>1</sup> para predecir los valores fenotípicos.</p>

<br>

<P align="justify">Se usaron diferentes subconjuntos de datos con la siguientes características:<p>

.pull-left[

<P align="justify">a) Distinta cantidad de individuos genotipados.</p>

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]

.pull-right[

<P align="justify">b) Diferentes densidades de marcadores.</p>

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]

<br>

<P align="justify">Se uso la `\(cor(y, \hat{y})\)` como medida de predictibilidad, en individuos F2 y F3.</p>

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Pérez-Enciso, Ramírez-Ayala, and Zingaretti (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12711-020-0530-2).</FONT></p>

]

---
class: center

### Resultados y discusión

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación ancestral</b></p>

???

### REML y métodos Bayesianos

<P align="justify">Para la estimación de los componentes de varianza y la predicción de los valores genéticos utilizando el BLUP (o GBLUP o ssGBLUP) se pueden emplear métodos REML y Bayesianos. </p>

<P align="justify">En el **REML** se obtiene un **estimador puntual que representa el valor con probabilidad máxima**. En los análisis de este estudio, la estima de heredabilidad (mediante el BLUP) usando REML en los tres pedigríes simulados de forma ancestral sería:</p>

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        <span class="gt_column_spanner">REML</span>
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<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.47</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.50</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.56</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Varianza ambiental</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.12</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.13</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.11</td></tr>
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<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.80</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.79</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.84</td></tr>
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          Ped. 1 indica Pedigrí 1
          <br />
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<P align="justify">Por otro lado, los métodos **Bayesianos** usan la Cadena de Markov Monte Carlo (MCMC) y **tomar muestras sucesivamente de las distribuciones condicionales de todos los parámetros de un modelo para generar una muestra aleatoria de la distribución posterior marginal**, que es el objetivo de la inferencia Bayesiana. En los análisis de este estudio, dicha distribución posterior marginal sería:</p>

---
class: center

### Resultados y discusión

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación de descendientes</b></p>

---
class: center

### Resultados y discusión

<P align="justify"><b>Precisión de la predicción mediante simulación de descendientes</b></p>

.pull-left[

]

.pull-right[

.discusion_1[

<P align="justify">Ganancia en precisión de 0 a 1.000 marcadores: <b>0.4 - 4.0%</b></p>

]

<HR>

.discusion_2[

<P align="justify">Ganancia en precisión de 0 a 10.000 marcadores: <b>0.9 - 8.7%</b></p>

]

<HR>

.discusion_1[

<P align="justify">Ganancia en precisión de 0 a 100.000 marcadores: <b>0.7 - 9.0%</b></p>

]

???

### Ganancias en precisión

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<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.577</td></tr>
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</div>

---
class: center

### Resultados y discusión

.pull-left[

.discusion_1[

<P align="justify">Aunque a mayor cantidad de marcadores mejor será la precisión de la predicción<sup>1</sup>, se demostró que por encima de cierta densidad es difícil mejorar la precisión.</p>

]

.discusion_2[

<P align="justify">Es difícil determinar el número ideal de individuos genotipados debido a que esto suele tener un costo alto<sup>2</sup>.</p>

]

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      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Especie </th>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Densidad de marcador</th>
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    </tr>
  </thead>
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    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Bovino</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">3.000 (38.082)<sup class="gt_footnote_marks">1</sup></td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Li, Zhang, Wang et al. (2018)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Trigo</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">5.000 (17.181)</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Norman, Taylor, Edwards et al. (2018)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Bovino</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">10.000 (667.954)</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Zhu, Zhang, Niu et al. (2017)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Camaron</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">3.200 (23.000)</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Wang, Yu, Yuan et al. (2017)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Eucalipto</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">5.000 (41.304)</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Tan, Grattapaglia, Salgado-Martins et al. (2017)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Arroz</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">7.142 (73.147)</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Spindel, Begum, Akdemir et al. (2015)</td></tr>
  </tbody>
  
  <tfoot>
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          <sup class="gt_footnote_marks">
            <em>1</em>
          </sup>
           
          El valor entre paréntesis es la densidad total.
          <br />
        </p>
      </td>
    </tr>
  </tfoot>
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</div>

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Wang, Xu, Hu et al. (2018)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2018.03.001).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Spindel, Begum, Akdemir et al. (2015)](https://doi.org/e1004982. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.100498).</FONT></p>

<!--

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[3] [Norman, Taylor, Edwards et al. (2018)](https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.118.200311).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[4] [Zhu, Zhang, Niu et al. (2017)](https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(16)61474-0).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[5] [Wang, Yu, Yuan et al. (2017)](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-017-0507-5).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[6] [Tan, Grattapaglia, Salgado-Martins et al. (2017)](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-017-1059-6).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[7] [Li, Zhang, Wang et al. (2018)](https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2018.00237).</FONT></p>

-->

]

???

### El desequilibrio de ligamiento

Si los SNPs son solo marcadores ubicados fuera de las regiones génicas, la mayoría de las veces, ¿por qué usarlos? Debido a que pueden estar asociados a QTL o genes, hecho que puede explicarse por un evento llamado desequilibrio de ligamiento (LD).

Se pueden usar SNP para deducir el genotipo de los individuos en cada QTL no observado. Al tener paneles SNP densos (por ejemplo, 50.000 SNP), es más probable que el QTL esté en LD con al menos un SNP. Si el QTL A está ligado al SNP B, dependiendo de la fuerza de esta asociación, una vez que se observe el SNP B, implicará que se hereda junto al QTL A. De esta forma, la selección genómica se basa en el LD entre el SNP y el QTL, y aunque no observamos el QTL, se puede observar una asociación indirecta entre el SNP y el QTL:

---
class: center

### Resultados y discusión

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#zvhznrmybz .gt_center {
  text-align: center;
}

#zvhznrmybz .gt_right {
  text-align: right;
  font-variant-numeric: tabular-nums;
}

#zvhznrmybz .gt_font_normal {
  font-weight: normal;
}

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  font-weight: bold;
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  font-style: italic;
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  font-style: italic;
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</style>
<table class="gt_table">
  
  <thead class="gt_col_headings">
    <tr>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Especie </th>
      <th class="gt_center gt_columns_top_border gt_column_spanner_outer" rowspan="1" colspan="2">
        <span class="gt_column_spanner">Precisión</span>
      </th>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Referencia</th>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BLUP</th>
      <th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ssGBLUP</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody class="gt_table_body">
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Cítrico</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">5.0%</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">5.4%</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Imai, Kuniga, Yoshioka et al. (2019)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Árbol</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">4.7%</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">5.0-5.4%<sup class="gt_footnote_marks">1</sup></td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Ratcliffe, El-Dien, Cappa et al. (2017)</td></tr>
    <tr><td class="gt_row gt_left">Gallina</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">2.2%</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">4.3%</td>
<td class="gt_row gt_left">Lourenco, Fragomeni, Tsuruta et al. (2015)</td></tr>
  </tbody>
  
  <tfoot>
    <tr class="gt_footnotes">
      <td colspan="4">
        <p class="gt_footnote">
          <sup class="gt_footnote_marks">
            <em>1</em>
          </sup>
           
          En 25-50-75-100% de individuos genotipados.
          <br />
        </p>
      </td>
    </tr>
  </tfoot>
</table>
</div>

]

.pull-right[

.discusion_1[

<P align="justify">El aumento en la precisión de la predicción se debe a que, a diferencia del ssGBLUP, el BLUP asume una relación promedio de cero entre individuos fundadores<sup>1</sup>, e ignora el término del muestreo Mendeliano<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>

]

.footnote[

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[1] [Toro, García-Cortés, and Legarra (2011)](https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9686-43-27).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[2] [Ratcliffe, El-Dien, Cappa et al. (2017)](https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.116.037895).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[3] [Hidalgo, Lourenco, Tsuruta et al. (2021)](https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1093/jas/skab239).</FONT></p>

<!--

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[4] [Imai, Kuniga, Yoshioka et al. (2019)](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221880).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[5] [Ratcliffe, El-Dien, Cappa et al. (2017)](https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.116.037895).</FONT></p>

<P align="justify"><FONT SIZE=2>[6] [Lourenco, Fragomeni, Tsuruta et al. (2015)](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12711-015-0137-1).</FONT></p>

-->

]

???

### El término de muestreo Mendeliano

<P align="justify">El valor genético de un individuo tiene tres componentes: (i) el valor genético del padre, (ii) el valor genético de la madre y, (iii) el término del muestreo Mendeliano. El valor genético del padre y el valor genético de la madre hacen referencia a que cada individuo recibe la mitad de sus genes de su padre y la otra mitad de su madre. Sin embargo, el padre y la madre no transmiten los mismos genes a su descendecia, sino que esto en un factor de azar, llamado también como **término del muestreo Mendeliano**. Por tanto, el término del muestreo Mendeliano indica el factor de azar en la distribución de la mitad del material genético de cada progenitor a su descendencia.</p>

<P align="justify">La siguiente figura representa las fuentes de información utilizadas (áreas sombreadas) y sus proporciones antes y después de la selección (es decir, la selección reduce la varianza entre familias) cuando se utiliza el BLUP y la predicción del genoma completo (GWP) para predecir el valor genético estimado de un recién nacido sin registro fenotípico. AS es el valor genético del padre, AD es el valor genético de la madre y aj es el término de muestreo mendeliano.<p>

<P align="justify">Figura adaptada de [Daetwyler, Villanueva, Bijma, and Woolliams(2007)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18076474/).</p>

<P align="justify">La información sobre antepasados y parientes colaterales aumenta la precisión al agregar directamente precisión en los dos primeros de estos componentes. La precisión del término de muestreo Mendeliano se puede aumentar utilizando el registro fenotípico de un individuo o la información de la progenie. En la práctica, la mayoría de los esquemas de selección BLUP aumentan la precisión al capturar información adicional sobre los antepasados y los parientes colaterales, porque la información sobre la descendencia a menudo no está disponible en el momento de la selección. Por el contrario, GWP utiliza más el término del muestreo Mendeliano.</p>

---
class: center

### Conclusiones

+ <P align="justify">El uso combinado de información genómica y de pedigrí en la mejora genética del arroz, mejora la precisión de la predicción genómica.</p>

+ <P align="justify">Se obtuvo una buena precisión de la predicción genómica utilizando densidades bajas de marcadores; esto permitirá que la selección genómica para el carácter tiempo de floración en arroz, mediante el ssGBLUP, pueda realizarse con información de genotipos a bajo costo.</p>

---

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---
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